His youth was divided between his eldest brother Henry's house, where he learned the art of knighthood, and the hous e of his father's justiciar, Ranulf Glanvil, where he learn ed the business of government. As the fourth child, inherit ed lands were not available to him, giving rise to his nick name, Lackland. The survival of the English government dur ing John's reign is a testament to the reforms of his fathe r, as John taxed the system socially, economically, and jud icially.
John died in the midst of invasion from the French in the S outh and rebellion from his barons in the North. John, King of England
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This article is about the King of England. For the play by William Shakespeare, see The Life and Death of King John.
John
A drawing of King John holding a model of a church in his left hand. He is wearing robes and a crown and coloured in gold and yellow; the background is a rich red.
John from the Historia Anglorum
King of England (more...)
Reign 6 April 1199 – 19 October 1216
Coronation 27 May 1199
Predecessor Richard I
Successor Henry III
Consort Isabel, Countess of Gloucester
m. 1189; ann. 1199
Isabella of Angoulême
m. 1200; wid. 1216
Issue
Henry III
Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall
Joan, Queen of Scots
Isabella, Holy Roman Empress
Eleanor, Countess of Pembroke
House House of Plantagenet
Father Henry II of England
Mother Eleanor of Aquitaine
Born 24 December 1166
Beaumont Palace, Oxford
Died 19 October 1216 (aged 49)
Newark Castle, Newark-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire
Burial Worcester Cathedral
John (24 December 1166 – 18/19 October 1216), also known as John Lackland or Softsword, was King of England from 6 April 1199 until his death. During John's reign, England lost the duchy of Normandy to the French king Philip II, which resulted in the collapse of most of the Angevin Empire and contributed to the subsequent growth in power of the Capetian dynasty during the 13th century. The baronial revolt at the end of John's reign led to the signing of the Magna Carta, a document often considered to be an early step in the evolution of the constitution of the United Kingdom.
John, the youngest of five sons of King Henry II of England and Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine, was at first not expected to inherit significant lands. Following the failed rebellion of his elder brothers between 1173 and 1174, however, John became Henry's favourite child. He was appointed the Lord of Ireland in 1177 and given lands in England and on the continent. John's elder brothers William, Henry and Geoffrey died young; by the time Richard I became king in 1189, John was a potential heir to the throne and undertaking the role of Sheriff of Somerset and Dorset. John unsuccessfully attempted a rebellion against Richard's royal administrators whilst his brother was participating in the Third Crusade. Despite this, after Richard died in 1199, John was proclaimed king of England, and came to an agreement with Philip II of France to recognise John's possession of the continental Angevin lands at the peace treaty of Le Goulet in 1200.
When war with France broke out again in 1202, John achieved early victories, but shortages of military resources and his treatment of Norman, Breton and Anjou nobles resulted in the collapse of his empire in northern France in 1204. John spent much of the next decade attempting to regain these lands, raising huge revenues, reforming his armed forces and rebuilding continental alliances. John's judicial reforms had a lasting, positive impact on the English common law system, as well as providing an additional source of revenue. An argument with Pope Innocent III led to John's excommunication in 1209, a dispute finally settled by the king in 1213. John's attempt to defeat Philip in 1214 failed due to the French victory over John's allies at the battle of Bouvines. When he returned to England, John faced a rebellion by many of his barons, who were unhappy with his fiscal policies and his treatment of many of England's most powerful nobles. Although both John and the barons agreed to the Magna Carta peace treaty in 1215, neither side complied with its conditions. Civil war broke out shortly afterwards, with the barons aided by Louis of France. It soon descended into a stalemate. John died of dysentery contracted whilst on campaign in eastern England during late 1216; supporters of his son Henry III went on to achieve victory over Louis and the rebel barons the following year.
Contemporary chroniclers were mostly critical of John's performance as king, and his reign has since been the subject of significant debate and periodic revision by historians from the 16th century onwards. Historian Jim Bradbury has summarised the contemporary historical opinion of John's positive qualities, observing that John is today usually considered a "hard-working administrator, an able man, an able general".[1] Nonetheless, modern historians agree that he also had many faults as king, including what historian Ralph Turner describes as "distasteful, even dangerous personality traits", such as pettiness, spitefulness and cruelty.[2] These negative qualities provided extensive material for fiction writers in the Victorian era, and John remains a recurring character within Western popular culture, primarily as a villain in films and stories depicting the Robin Hood legends.
Contents
[hide]
1 Early life (1166–89)
1.1 Childhood and the Angevin inheritance
1.2 Early life
2 Richard's reign (1189–99)
3 Early reign (1199–1204)
3.1 Accession to the throne, 1199
3.2 Le Goulet peace, 1200–02
3.3 Loss of Normandy, 1202–04
4 John as king
4.1 Kingship and royal administration
4.2 Economy
4.3 Royal household and ira et malevolentia
4.4 Personal life
5 Later reign (1204–14)
5.1 Continental policy
5.2 Scotland, Ireland and Wales
5.3 Dispute with the Pope
6 Failure in France and the First Barons' War (1215–16)
6.1 Tensions and discontent
6.2 Failure of the 1214 French campaign
6.3 Pre-war tensions and Magna Carta
6.4 War with the barons
7 Death
8 Legacy
8.1 Historiography
8.2 Popular representations
9 Ancestry
10 Notes
11 References
12 Bibliography
[edit] Early life (1166–89)
[edit] Childhood and the Angevin inheritance
A coloured map of medieval France, showing the Angevin territories in the west, the royal French territories in the east, and the Duchy of Toulouse in the south.
The Angevin continental empire (in buff and orange) in the late 12th century
Main article: Angevin Empire
John was born to Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine on 24 December 1166.[3] Henry had inherited significant territories along the Atlantic seaboard – Anjou, Normandy and England – and expanded his empire by conquering Brittany.[4] Henry married the powerful Eleanor of Aquitaine, who reigned over the Duchy of Aquitaine and had a tenuous claim to Toulouse and Auvergne in southern France, in addition to being the former wife of Louis VII of France.[4] The result was the Angevin Empire, so called because of the Count of Anjou's traditional seat in the city of Angers.[nb 1] The Angevin Empire of Henry II was inherently fragile: although all the lands owed allegiance to Henry, the disparate parts each had their own histories, traditions and governance structures.[6] As one moved south through Anjou and Aquitaine, the extent of royal power in the provinces diminished considerably, scarcely resembling the modern concept of an empire at all. Some of the traditional ties between parts of the empire such as Normandy and England were slowly dissolving over time.[7] It was unclear what would happen to the empire on Henry's death. Although the tradition of primogeniture, under which an eldest son would inherit all his father's lands, was slowly becoming more widespread across Europe, it was less popular amongst the Norman kings of England.[8] Most believed that Henry would divide the empire, giving each son a substantial portion, hoping that his children would then continue to work together as allies after his death.[9] To complicate matters, much of the Angevin empire was technically owned by Henry only as a vassal of the King of France of the rival line of the House of Capet. Henry had often allied himself with the Holy Roman Emperor against France, making the feudal relationship even more challenging.[10]
Shortly after his birth, John was passed from Eleanor into the care of a wet nurse, a traditional practice for medieval noble families.[11] Eleanor then left for Poitiers, the capital of Aquitaine, and sent John and his sister Joan north to Fontevrault Abbey.[12] This may have been done with the aim of steering her youngest son, with no obvious inheritance, towards a future ecclesiastical career.[11] Eleanor spent the next few years conspiring against her husband Henry and neither parent played a part in John's very early life.[11] John was probably, like his brothers, assigned a magister whilst he was at Fontevrault, a teacher charged with his early education and with managing the servants of his immediate household; John was later taught by Ranulph Glanville, a leading English administrator.[13] John spent some time as a member of the household of his eldest living brother Henry the Young King, where he probably received instruction in hunting and military skills.[12]
John would grow up to be around 5 ft 5 in high (1.62 m), relatively short for royalty of the day, with a "powerful, barrel-chested body" and dark red hair; he appeared to contemporaries to look like an inhabitant of Poitou.[14] John enjoyed reading and, unusual for the period, built up a travelling library of books.[15] He enjoyed gambling, in particular on backgammon, and was an enthusiastic hunter, even by medieval standards.[16] He liked music, although not songs.[17] John would become a "connoisseur of jewels", building up a large collection, and became famous for his opulent clothes and also, according to French chroniclers, for his fondness for bad wine.[18] As John grew up, he became known for sometimes being "genial, witty, generous and hospitable"; at other moments, he could be jealous, over-sensitive and prone to fits of rage, "biting and gnawing his fingers" in anger.[19][nb 2]
[edit] Early life
An illuminated manuscript, showing Henry and Aquitaine sat on thrones, accompanied by two staff. Two elaborate birds form a canopy over the pair of rulers.
John's parents, Henry II and Eleanor, holding court
During John's early years, Henry attempted to resolve the question of his succession. Henry the Young King had been crowned King of England in 1170, but without being given any formal powers by his father, and was also promised Normandy and Anjou as part of his future inheritance. Richard was to be appointed the Count of Poitou and would be given control of Aquitaine, whilst Geoffrey was to become the Duke of Brittany.[20] At this time it seemed unlikely that John would ever inherit substantial lands, and John was jokingly nicknamed "Lackland" by his father.[21]
Henry II wanted to secure the southern borders of Aquitaine and decided to betroth his youngest son to Alais, the daughter and heiress of Humbert III of Savoy.[22] As part of this agreement John was promised the future inheritance of Savoy, Piemonte, Maurienne, and the other possessions of Count Humbert.[22] For his part in the potential marriage alliance, Henry II transferred the castles of Chinon, Loudun and Mirebeau into John's name; as John was only five years old his father would continue to control them for practical purposes.[22] Henry the Young King was unimpressed by this; although he had yet to be granted control of any castles in his new kingdom, these were effectively his future property and had been given away without consultation.[22] Alais made the trip over the Alps and joined Henry II's court, but she died before marrying John, which left the prince once again without an inheritance.[22]
In 1173 John's elder brothers, backed by Eleanor, rose in revolt against Henry in the short-lived rebellion of 1173 to 1174. Growing irritated with his subordinate position to Henry II and increasingly worried that John might be given additional lands and castles at his expense,[20] Henry the Young King travelled to Paris and allied himself with Louis VII.[23] Eleanor, irritated by her husband's persistent interference in Aquitaine, encouraged Richard and Geoffrey to join their brother Henry in Paris.[23] Henry II triumphed over the coalition of his sons, but was generous to them in the peace settlement agreed at Montlouis.[22] Henry the Young King was allowed to travel widely in Europe with his own household of knights, Richard was given Aquitaine back, and Geoffrey was allowed to return to Brittany; only Eleanor was imprisoned for her role in the revolt.[24]
John had spent the conflict travelling alongside his father and was given widespread possessions across the Angevin empire as part of the Montlouis settlement; from then onwards, most observers regarded John as Henry II's favourite child, although he was the furthest removed in terms of the royal succession.[22] Henry II began to find more lands for John, mostly at various nobles' expense. In 1175 he appropriated the estates of the late Earl of Cornwall and gave them to John.[22] The following year, Henry disinherited the sisters of Isabelle of Gloucester, contrary to legal custom, and betrothed John to the now extremely wealthy Isabelle.[25] In 1177, at the Council of Oxford, Henry dismissed William FitzAldelm as the Lord of Ireland and replaced him with the ten-year-old John.[25]
An illuminated diagram showing Henry II and the heads of his children; coloured lines connect the two to show the lineal descent
13th-century depiction of Henry II and John's siblings: (l to r) William, Henry, Richard, Geoffrey, Matilda, Eleanor, Joan and John
Henry the Young King fought a short war with his brother Richard in 1183 over the status of England, Normandy and Aquitaine.[25] Henry II moved in support of Richard, and Henry the Young King died from dysentery at the end of the campaign.[25] With his primary heir dead, Henry rearranged the plans for the succession: Richard was to be made King of England, albeit without any actual power until the death of his father; Geoffrey would retain Brittany; and John would now become the Duke of Aquitaine in place of Richard.[25] Richard refused to give up Aquitaine;[25] Henry II was furious and ordered John, with help from Geoffrey, to march south and retake the duchy by force.[25] The two attacked the capital of Poitiers, and Richard responded by attacking Brittany.[25] The war ended in stalemate and a tense family reconciliation in England at the end of 1184.[25]
In 1185 John made his first visit to Ireland, accompanied by three hundred knights and a team of administrators.[26] Henry had tried to have John officially proclaimed King of Ireland, but Pope Lucius III would not agree.[26] John's first period of rule in Ireland was not a success. Ireland had only recently been conquered by Anglo-Norman forces, and tensions were still rife between Henry II, the new settlers and the existing inhabitants.[27] John infamously offended the local Irish rulers by making fun of their unfashionable long beards, failed to make allies amongst the Anglo-Norman settlers, began to lose ground militarily against the Irish and finally returned to England later in the year, blaming the viceroy, Hugh de Lacy, for the fiasco.[27]
The problems amongst John's wider family continued to grow. His elder brother Geoffrey died during a tournament in 1186, leaving a posthumous son, Arthur, and an elder daughter, Eleanor.[28] The duchy of Brittany was given to Arthur rather than John, but Geoffrey's death brought John slightly closer to the throne of England.[28] The uncertainty about what would happen after Henry's death continued to grow; Richard was keen to join a new crusade and remained concerned that whilst he was away Henry would appoint John his formal successor.[29] Richard began discussions about a potential alliance with Philip II in Paris during 1187, and the next year Richard gave homage to Philip in exchange for support for a war against Henry.[30] Richard and Philip fought a joint campaign against Henry, and by the summer of 1189 the king made peace, promising Richard the succession.[31] John initially remained loyal to his father, but changed sides once it appeared that Richard would win.[31] Henry died shortly afterwards.[31]
[edit] Richard's reign (1189–99)
A picture showing King Richard sat beside King Philip II, the latter is receiving a key from two Arabs; a castle, presumably Acre, can be seen in the top right of the picture.
Richard (l) and Philip II at Acre during the Third Crusade
When John's elder brother Richard became king in September 1189, he had already declared his intention of joining the Third Crusade.[31] Richard set about raising the huge sums of money required for this expedition through the sale of lands, titles and appointments, and attempted to ensure that he would not face a revolt while away from his empire.[32] John was made Count of Mortain, was married to the wealthy Isabel of Gloucester, and was given valuable lands in Lancaster and the counties of Cornwall, Derby, Devon, Dorset, Nottingham and Somerset, all with the aim of buying his loyalty to Richard whilst the king was on crusade.[33] Richard retained royal control of key castles in these counties, thereby preventing John from accumulating too much military and political power.[34] In return, John promised not to visit England for the next three years, thereby in theory giving Richard adequate time to conduct a successful crusade and return from the Levant without fear of John seizing power.[35] Richard left political authority in England – the post of justiciar – jointly in the hands of Bishop Hugh de Puiset and William Mandeville, and made William Longchamp, the Bishop of Ely, his chancellor.[36] Mandeville immediately died, and Longchamp took over as joint justiciar with Puiset, which would prove to be a less than satisfactory partnership.[35] Eleanor, the queen mother, convinced Richard to allow John into England in his absence.[35]
The political situation in England rapidly began to deteriorate. Longchamp refused to work with Puiset and became unpopular with the English nobility and clergy.[37] John exploited this unpopularity to set himself up as an alternative ruler with his own royal court, complete with his own justiciar, chancellor and other royal posts, and was happy to be portrayed as an alternative regent, and possibly the next king.[38] Armed conflict broke out between John and Longchamp, and by October 1191 Longchamp was isolated in the Tower of London with John in control of the city of London, thanks to promises John had made to the citizens in return for recognition as Richard's heir presumptive.[39] At this point Walter of Coutances, the Archbishop of Rouen, returned to England, having been sent by Richard to restore order.[40] John's position was undermined by Walter's relative popularity and by the news that Richard had married whilst in Cyprus, which presented the possibility that Richard would have legitimate children and heirs.[41]
The political turmoil continued. John began to explore an alliance with the French king Philip II, freshly returned from the crusade. John hoped to acquire Normandy, Anjou and the other lands in France held by Richard in exchange for allying himself with Philip.[41] John was persuaded not to pursue an alliance by his mother.[41] Longchamp, who had left England after Walter's intervention, now returned, and argued that he had been wrongly removed as justiciar.[42] John intervened, suppressing Longchamp's claims in return for promises of support from the royal administration, including a reaffirmation of his position as heir to the throne.[42] When Richard still did not return from the crusade, John began to assert that his brother was dead or otherwise permanently lost.[42] Richard had in fact been captured en route to England by the Duke of Austria and was handed over to Emperor Henry VI, who held him for ransom.[42] John seized the opportunity and went to Paris, where he formed an alliance with Philip. He agreed to set aside his wife, Isabella of Gloucester, and marry Philip's sister, Alys, in exchange for Philip's support.[43] Fighting broke out in England between forces loyal to Richard and those being gathered by John.[43] John's military position was weak and he agreed to a truce; in early 1194 the king finally returned to England, and John's remaining forces surrendered.[44] John retreated to Normandy, where Richard finally found him later that year.[44] Richard declared that his younger brother – despite being 27 years old – was merely "a child who has had evil counsellors" and forgave him, but removed his lands with the exception of Ireland.[45]
For the remaining years of Richard's reign, John supported his brother on the continent, apparently loyally.[46] Richard's policy on the continent was to attempt to regain the castles he had lost to Philip II whilst on crusade through steady, limited campaigns. He allied himself with the leaders of Flanders, Boulogne and the Holy Roman Empire to apply pressure on Philip from Germany.[47] In 1195 John successfully conducted a sudden attack and siege of Évreux castle, and subsequently managed the defences of Normandy against Philip.[46] The following year, John seized the town of Gamaches and led a raiding party within 50 miles (80 km) of Paris, capturing the Bishop of Beauvais.[46] In return for this service, Richard withdrew his malevontia, or ill-will, towards John, restored him to the county of Gloucestershire and made him again the Count of Mortain.[46]
[edit] Early reign (1199–1204)
[edit] Accession to the throne, 1199
A photograph of a tall grey castle, with a taller keep visible beyond the main walls.
The donjon of Château Gaillard; the loss of the castle would prove devastating for John's military position in Normandy
After Richard's death on 6 April 1199 there were two potential claimants to the Angevin throne: John, whose claim rested on being the sole surviving son of Henry II, and young Arthur of Brittany, who held a claim as the son of Geoffrey, John's elder brother.[48] Richard appears to have started to recognise John as his legitimate heir in the final years before his death, but the matter was not clear-cut and medieval law gave little guidance as to how the competing claims should be decided.[49] With Norman law favouring John as the only surviving son of Henry II and Angevin law favouring Arthur as the heir of Henry's elder son, the matter rapidly became an open conflict.[8] John was supported by the bulk of the English and Norman nobility and was crowned at Westminster, backed by his mother, Eleanor. Arthur was supported by the majority of the Breton, Maine and Anjou nobles and received the support of Philip II, who remained committed to breaking up the Angevin territories on the continent.[50] With Arthur's army pressing up the Loire valley towards Angers and Philip's forces moving down the valley towards Tours, John's continental empire was in danger of being cut in two.[51]
Warfare in Normandy at the time was shaped by the defensive potential of castles and the increasing costs of conducting campaigns.[52] The Norman frontiers had limited natural defences but were heavily reinforced with castles, such as Château Gaillard, at strategic points, built and maintained at considerable expense.[53] It was difficult for a commander to advance far into fresh territory without having secured his lines of communication by capturing these fortifications, which slowed the progress of any attack.[54] Armies of the period could be formed from either feudal or mercenary forces.[55] Feudal levies could only be raised for a fixed length of time before they returned home, forcing an end to a campaign; mercenary forces, often called Brabançons after the Duchy of Brabant but actually recruited from across northern Europe, could operate all year long and provide a commander with more strategic options to pursue a campaign, but cost much more than equivalent feudal forces.[56] As a result commanders of the period were increasing drawing on larger numbers of mercenaries.[57]
After his coronation, John moved south into France with military forces and adopted a defensive posture along the eastern and southern Normandy borders.[58] Both sides paused for desultory negotiations before the war recommenced; John's position was now stronger, thanks to confirmation that Count Baldwin of Flanders and Renaud of Boulogne had renewed the anti-French alliances they had previously agreed to with Richard.[50] The powerful Anjou nobleman William de Roches was persuaded to switch sides from Arthur to John; suddenly the balance seemed to be tipping away from Philip and Arthur in favour of John.[59] Neither side was keen to continue the conflict, and following a papal truce the two leaders met in January 1200 to negotiate possible terms for peace.[59] From John's perspective, what then followed represented an opportunity to stabilise control over his continental possessions and produce a lasting peace with Philip in Paris. John and Philip negotiated the May 1200 Treaty of Le Goulet; by this treaty, Philip recognised John as the rightful heir to Richard in respect to his French possessions, temporarily abandoning the wider claims of his client, Arthur.[60][nb 3] John, in turn, abandoned Richard's former policy of containing Philip through alliances with Flanders and Boulogne, and accepted Philip's right as the legitimate feudal overlord of John's lands in France.[61] John's policy earned him the disrespectful title of "John Softsword" from some English chroniclers, who contrasted his behaviour with his more aggressive brother, Richard.[62]
[edit] Le Goulet peace, 1200–02
A photograph of a medieval tomb with a carving of Isabella on top. She is lying with her hands clasped, wearing a blue dress.
The tomb of Isabella of Angoulême, John's second wife
The new peace would only last for two years; war recommenced in the aftermath of John's decision in August 1200 to marry Isabella of Angoulême. In order to remarry, John first needed to abandon Isabel, Countess of Gloucester, his first wife; John accomplished this by arguing that he had failed to get the necessary papal permission to marry Isabel in the first place – as a cousin, John could not have legally wed her without this.[60] It remains unclear why John chose to marry Isabella of Angoulême. Contemporary chroniclers argued that John had fallen deeply in love with Isabella, and John may have been motivated by desire for an apparently beautiful, if rather young, girl.[60] On the other hand, the Angoumois lands that came with Isabella were strategically vital to John: by marrying Isabella, John was acquiring a key land route between Poitou and Gascony, which significantly strengthened his grip on Aquitaine.[63]
Unfortunately, Isabella was already engaged to Hugh de Lusignan, an important member of a key Poitou noble family and brother of Raoul de Lusignan, the Count of Eu, who possessed lands along the sensitive eastern Normandy border.[60] Just as John stood to benefit strategically from marrying Isabella, so the marriage threatened the interests of the Lusignans, whose own lands currently provided the key route for royal goods and troops across Aquitaine.[64] Rather than negotiating some form of compensation, John treated Hugh "with contempt"; this resulted in a Lusignan uprising that was promptly crushed by John, who also intervened to suppress Raoul in Normandy.[63]
Although John was the Count of Poitou and therefore the rightful feudal lord over the Lusignans, they could legitimately appeal John's actions in France to his own feudal lord, Philip.[63] Hugh did exactly this in 1201 and Philip summoned John to attend court in Paris in 1202, citing the Le Goulet treaty to strengthen his case.[63] John was unwilling to weaken his authority in western France in this way. He argued that he need not attend Philip's court because of his special status as the Duke of Normandy, who was exempt by feudal tradition from being called to the French court.[63] Philip argued that he was summoning John not as the Duke of Normandy, but as the Count of Poitou, which carried no such special status.[63] When John still refused to come, Philip declared John in breach of his feudal responsibilities, reassigned all of John's lands that fell under the French crown to Arthur – with the exception of Normandy, which he took back for himself – and began a fresh war against John.[63]
[edit] Loss of Normandy, 1202–04
Main article: Normandy Campaigns
A map of France showing John's bold sweep towards Mirebeau with a red arrow.
John's successful 1202 campaign, which culminated in the victory of the battle of Mirebeau; red arrows indicate the movement of John's forces, blue those of Philip II's forces and light blue those of Philip's Breton and Lusignan allies
John initially adopted a defensive posture similar to that of 1199: avoiding open battle and carefully defending his key castles.[65] John's operations became more chaotic as the campaign progressed, and Philip began to make steady progress in the east.[65] John became aware in July that Arthur's forces were threatening his mother, Eleanor, at Mirebeau Castle. Accompanied by William de Roches, his seneschal in Anjou, he swung his mercenary army rapidly south to protect her.[65] His forces caught Arthur by surprise and captured the entire rebel leadership at the battle of Mirebeau.[65] With his southern flank weakening, Philip was forced to withdraw in the east and turn south himself to contain John's army.[65]
John's position in France was considerably strengthened by the victory at Mirebeau, but John's treatment of his new prisoners and of his ally, William de Roches, quickly undermined these gains. De Roches was a powerful Anjou noble, but John largely ignored him, causing considerable offence, whilst the king kept the. John I ("King of England") Lackland King of England had person sources.
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